Water-puppetry (mua roi nuoc) is obscure, beyond that it developed in the flooded rice paddies of the Red River Delta and usually took place in spring when there was less farm work to be done. The earliest record is a stele in Ha Nam Province dated 1121 AD, suggesting that by this date water-puppetry was already a regular feature at the royal court.

The art of water-puppetry was traditionally a jealously guarded secret handed down from father to son; women were not permitted to learn the techniques in case they revealed them to their husbands’ families. This contributed to its decline until the art seemed in danger of dying out altogether. Happily, a French organization, the Maison des Cultures du Monde, intervened and, since 1984, with newly carved puppets, a revamped programme and more elaborate staging, Vietnam’s water-puppet troupes have played various international capitals to great acclaim – and can be seen daily in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City and Haiphong. Where before gongs and drums alone were used for scene-setting and building atmosphere, today’s national troupes often maintain a larger ensemble, similar to Hat Cheo, including zithers and flutes. The songs are also borrowed from the Cheo repertoire, particularly declamatory styles and popular folk tunes, and the show often includes a short recital of traditional music before the puppets emerge to create their own unique illusion.